INTRODUCTION
During the last few decades, the United Nations has played a crucial role for empowerment of women through the systematic approach adressed global partnership in promoting and protecting women’s rights, as well as in creation of the appropriate conditions for support the implementation and monitoring the enforcement of such rights. The UN was instrumental in the globalization of gender equality throughout the world and further development of the fight against discrimination between women and men. The UN Charter-based Human Rights Bodies, as well as its Treaty-based Bodies have taken significant steps for empowerment of women and the elimination of discrimination on the grounds of sex, and also, for paving the way for women to be engaged in various areas of social life. With the establishment of the United Nations in 1945, women’s attempt to obtain gender equality have become more organized and targeted.[1] For the first time in the history, the equality of people without any distinction on grounds of race, gender, religion and language was proclaimed in the UN Charter.[2] The Commission on the Status of Women[3], as a subsidiary body of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOS), observing and addressing human rights issues, particularly the status of women throughout the world, was established in 1946 within the UN framework.[4] This Commission for the very first time raised the question whether ‘there is a separate category of “women’s rights” warranting specific treatment through special machinery, instruments, and procedures’.[5] Feminist movement attracted the attention of the international community to the various women rights issues, led to the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948, that has become globally accepted core international human rights document[6]. According to this Declaration, signed by the Commission headed by Eleanor Roosevelt[7], every human being has the right to have rights and freedoms contained in the Declaration, regardless of such factors as race, colour and gender.[8] Under the article 1, ‘All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.’[9]
Thus, the UN rulemaking on the empowerment of women has begun to take root. Over time, UN Member States have committed themselves to the attainment of gender equality, reflected in a number of documents, including well-known Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)[10] and the Beijing Platform for Action of 1995 adopted at the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly[11], ‘the global community’s most comprehensive framework for gender equality’.[12] Women rights protection mechanisms are provided by treaty-based human rights bodies, such as the Committee of Elimination of Discrimination Against Women[13], as well as charter-based bodies, such as the Human Rights Council, its Universal Periodic Review, special procedures and other mechanisms. Such mechanisms includes the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSRAW), the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the Office of the Special Advisor to the Secretary General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI), which were established in order to resolve issue of gender parity and women empowerment.[14]
Furthermore, the principle of equality between men and women was proclaimed as one of the purposes of the United Nations in the Millennium Declaration of 2000. According to the Declaration, ‘No individual and no nation must be denied the opportunity to benefit from development. The equal rights and opportunities of women and men must be assured.’.[15]
Thus, the United Nations raises the issue of the promotion of the equality without any discrimination on the grounds of sex on the global agenda, and implements its principles and strategies related to the parity between men and women through the UN Charter and Treaty Bodies.
BRIEF BACKGROUND
The women’s movement in the last decades of XX century used global networks and coalitions to draw the public attention to the implementation of women’s rights and their importance to meet the economic, social, ecological and political challenges. This led to the gender mainstreaming and development of strategies to achieve changes in international behaviour in gender policy, to enable sharing ideas and experience of women throughout the world. The International Federation of Women is seeking empowerment of women in the United Nations and full equality of men and women in public, economic life, in the area of civil, poverty and family relations.[16]
At the initiative of women’s organizations, the UN General Assembly proclaimed 1975 as the International Year of Women and, within its framework, convened the First World Conference on the Status of Women in Mexico, attended by the delegates from 133 countries.[17] They discussed the patterns of equality, peace and development.[18] During the Conference, the first international covenant for the Advancement of the status of Women, so-called the World Plan of Action, was adopted. The Plan served as a ten-year guide for States in their efforts for ‘…the Implementation of the Objectives of the International Women’s Year and to integrate such reviews into the reports submitted to the Economic and Social Council’.[19] The three key objectives specified by the UN General Assembly included ‘full gender equality and the elimination of gender discrimination against women; the integration and full participation of women in development; an increased contribution by women in the strengthening of world peace’.[20] This document contained provisions to be met by 1980 to ensure equal access to recourses and opportunities, including health services, education, employment, nutrition, political participation, family planning and housing.[21] Recalling its resolution 3010 (XXVII) of 18 December 1972 in which it proclaimed the year 1975 International Women’s Year and the period from 1976 to 1985 United Nations ‘Decade for Women’[22], the General Assembly established the Women’s Development Fund.[23] Following this, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women was adopted as the first international document with full range of women’s rights and freedoms.[24]
The Second World Conference on women’s rights dimensions took place in Copenhagen in 1980.[25] It counted with the participation of over 1300 delegates from 145 different countries, together with 8000 participants in the parallel non-governmental organizations Forum.[26] The work of the Second Conference identified gaps between the implementation of universal human rights and the empowerment of women.[27] The delegates also discussed numerous gender problems in various regions of the world. The same issues were addressed in the Third World Conference on the Status of Women in Nairobi in 1985.[28] As a result, the Nairobi “Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women”, which established a framework for achieving the goals of equality, development and peace, were accepted by the official representatives of 157 States.[29]
All the steps taken by the United Nations had their impact on strengthening the protection of women’s human rights and highlighting their specific value on the international agenda. Consequently, the international legal framework on the empowerment of women was globally expanded and continued to draw public attention.[30] This was reflected in the preparatory process for the World Conference on Human Rights and in the World Conference itself, held in Vienna in 1993.[31] The outcome of the Conference proved the success of women’s rights activists to challenge historical injustices of human rights violations on the grounds of sex.[32] The importance of this document for women and, more broadly, for the international human rights agenda cannot be underestimated. As a consequence, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action has become one of the main instruments emphasized the prohibition of gender-specific violations and considered such infringement as an offense.[33] According to the Vienna Declaration, ‘The human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights.’[34] That was a great achievement of the international women’s movement, which witnessed the effectiveness of the UN Charter-based Human rights Bodies activities. This success led to further recognition of the empowerment of women throughout the world. For instance, following the example of the Vienna Declaration, the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo recognized the importance of women’s, and especially girls’, access to health care, education and other basic rights in ensuring an effective policy regarding population and development.[35]
Furthermore, the outcome of the Vienna Conference encouraged all States to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women by the year 2000.[36] Under the Programme of Action, key recommendations were made to enhance the Convention’s implementation, particularly, to call upon all States to withdraw the Reservations ‘that are contrary to the object and purpose of the Convention or which are otherwise incompatible with international treaty law’.[37]
The Fourth World Conference on the Status of Women has become the most significant and unique UN event in its scope, topic and outcomes for women’s advancement, hold in Beijing (China) in 1995.[38] A total of 17,000 people representing governments, NGOs, journalists, and UN personnel from 189 countries attended the Conference, during which the Beijing Platform of Action was accepted to promote the status of women around the world.[39] According to the third Chapter of the Beijing Declaration, the Platform of Action addresses the empowerment of women in 12 critical areas of concern, including poverty, education and training, health care and related services, gender-specified violence, armed conflicts, economic structures and policies, sharing of power and decision-making, media, institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women, human rights of women, safeguarding the environment, and also ‘discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl child’.[40] Articles 35 stresses the necessity to ‘Ensure women’s equal access to economic resources including land, credit, science and technology, vocational training, information, communication and markets’.[41] Documents and subsequent materials, as well as follow-up strategies adopted at the Fourth World Conference by the UN Charter-based Human Rights Bodies constitute a further stage in thinking on the issues of women’s rights.[42]
Therefore, the concept of gender equality has firmly entered into the agenda of the global society. This was further highlighted at the special session of the United Nations General Assembly called “Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace for twenty-first century”.[43] A draft resolution that reaffirms Member States’ commitment to the goals and objectives contained in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, as well as in the Nairobi Looking-Forward Strategies, was adopted by the heads of Government and States participated in that session.[44]
UN WORK ON PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY
The United Nations and institutions created by it, whose aim is to ensure equal rights for women, have been instrumental in advancing women’s rights at the international level. The UN work on promoting gender equality is ensured through UN treaty and charter based human rights bodies. To evaluate the effectiveness of these mechanisms, it is necessary to analyse their work separately.
UN Treaty-based instruments relating women’s rights
Two of the UN core human rights treaties are exclusively devoted to the issue of equality and non-discrimination, i.e. the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)[45] and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).[46] All others, but the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), explicity prohibit discrimination on a number of grounds.[47]
All treaty bodies play an important role in monitoring violations of women’s rights in conflict and post-conflict situations, and data obtained as a result of their assistance could become conduits of information for developing policies of other Member States, as well as be useful in the preparation of documentation in other areas of the UN activities, such as the universal periodic review or the Commission of Inquiry.[48]
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (The CEDAW Committee)
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women has become the first comprehensive international document considered women’s rights as human rights.[49] This historically important instrument adopted during the UN Decade of Women, was accepted by the General Assembly on 18 December 1976 and was opened for signature on 1 March 1980. The Convention, increasingly being referred to as the international “bill of rights for women”,[50] was ratified by 189 Member States, which makes it one of the most widely ratified international human rights treaties.[51] The CEDAW includes the provisions on gender discrimination from the previous UN conventions and states social and economic, and also political and civil rights for women, addressing the private as well as public sphere.[52] One of the most important provisions of the Convention of 1979 is the clarification of the therm of “discrimination against women”, according to which ‘any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field’ shall mean gender-based discrimination.[53] Article 4, under which ‘Adoption by States Parties of temporary special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men and women shall not be considered discrimination as defined in the present Convention’, is crucial for States which have ratified the Convention and seek to achieve gender equality by organizing activities to attain it.[54]
The Convention also establishes requirements for participated states, namely:[55]
- to include the principle of gender equality in the national Constitution and other appropriate legislation;
- where appropriate, to use the relevant sanctions which prevent the discrimination on the grounds of sex;
- to adopt measures to modify existing legislation, customs, practices which contain the discrimination against women;
- to ensure the equal economic, civil, social, political and cultural rights between men and women.
Thus, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women so far has been a truly important document expressed the fundamental human rights of women statement of women’s rights in the economic, political, legal, social, family and health spheres.[56]
The CEDAW establishes a Treaty-monitoring body that meets several times a year (in Geneva and New York) to monitor the implications of the obligations under the treaty.[57] The CEDAW Committee, which is now serviced out of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva, also receives information from NGOs who produce shadow reports about their governments.[58] The Optional Protocol adopted in 2000, increased the influence of the Convention by allowing the committee to hear and act on complaints from individuals on violations of the Convention in countries that have ratified the protocol.[59] The CEDAW Committee, consists of 23 experts on women’s rights from around the world, reports to the General Assembly through the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).[60]
UN Charter-based Human Rights Bodies adressing women’s rights
As is known, the UN Charter-based mechanisms exercise their power through the UN Charter. In contrast to treaty-based bodies, charter instruments are addressed to broader audience, and they are not binding for Member states.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and Security Council
The OHCHR directs the activities of the United Nations in the field of human rights.[61] There are also number of special rapporteurs on human rights situations, including violence against women, health and education, cultural rights, human rights of migrants which provide information on the empowerment of women. The Commission on Human Rights has regularly called for the integration of women’s human rights into the work of the Special Rapporteurs on human rights.[62] The Special Rapporteurs also tend to use and refer to the category of “women and children,” reinforcing women’s identity and value as mothers.[63] Indeed, by far the most significant Special Rapporteur with respect to women and gender is the specialized Special Rapporteur on the Elimination of Violence against Women.[64]
The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) is the key mechanism of the Human Rights Council (Commission on Human Rights after 2006) which offers an occasion to each State party to describe what measures have been taken to improve human rights situation in their countries and to fulfill their human rights obligations.[65]
The Security Council Resolution 1325, adopted in 2000 and translated in 80 different languages,[66] reaffirmed women’s important role in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, in peacebuilding and peace-keeping, in humanitarian assistance and post-conflict reconstruction. The resolution emphasizes the responsibility of states to protect women and girls from violations of human rights, including gender-based violence; and stresses out the necessity to adress gender issues in all aspects of conflict prevention, resolution, and reconstruction.[67] Since the adoption of Resolution 1325 and 6 subsequent resolutions on women, peace and safety, the Security Council reaffirmed that human rights and gender equality are the central part of the maintenance international peace and security.[68] To implement all obligations in the area of human rights, the Intergovernmental Authorities (IGAD) and human rights instruments should cooperate in order to protect and promote women’s rights under all circumstances.[69]
The Commission on the Status of Women
The commission on the Status of Women (CSW) was established as a subsidiary organ of the Economic and Social council responsible for developement of recomendations and reports to the Women’s Rights Council in order to implement the principle of equality for women in the political, economical, social and educational fields.[70] It is a sub-commission of the Human Rights Council (former Commission on Human Rights), which makes its recommendations and reports to the ECOSOC.[71]
At the beginning, the CSW paved the way for legal equality mainly focusing on the political aspects of women’s rights, such as the right to vote and status in marriage, as well as access to education and vocational training, and women’s rights as workers.[72] The Convention on the Nationality of Married Women, the Convention on the Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages, as well as the Convention on the Political Rights of Women were adopted with the support of the SCW.[73]
After the UN World Conferences on Women between 1975-1995, the work of the Commission was reorganized. Since it was empowered to monitor the implementation of the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies from the 1985 conference, the Commission have had annual meetings.[74] Much of its work since has focused on monitoring implementation of first Nairobi and then the Beijing Platform for Action from 1995.[75] The ECOSOC Resolution 1996/6 adopted in 1996, empowered the Commission to play a lead role in follow-up of the analysis of problems and consequences of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, as well as expand the mainstreaming of gender issues in the UN agenda.[76]
The Commission on the Status of Women is crucial in empowerment of women and expansion of agenda for gender equality.[77] It reflects the outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, as well as provides in-depth review of current issues of agenda. The next sixty-third session of the Commission on the Status of Women will take place at the United Nations Headquarters in New York from 11 to 22 March 2019 with priority theme ‘Social protection systems, access to public services and sustainable infrastructure for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls’.[78]
Other Women Specific Institutions: UN WOMEN
UN Women is the Entity established by the General Assembly to accelerate progress in addressing issues of women and girls throughout the world on 2 July 2010.[79] İts work involves ‘four previously distincted parts’ of the UN system, namely, the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), which based in New York within the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, is a part of the UN Secretariat working for the SCW and developing norms on women’s empowerment mandated by the CSW, ECOSOC, and the General Assembly. İt ‘conducts research, prepares reports, and develops policy options as needed’.[80] Another part is the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSRAW), created in 1976 and established its headquarters in the Dominican Republic in 1983, arises from a recommendation in Mexico City. INSTRAW’s power includes women’s household production, as well as conduct research to identify gaps.[81] The UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)[82] the only UN Fund mandated to help women at both national and international level, began its work as as the Voluntary Fund for the UN Decade for Women in 1976 to promote the Decade and support implementation in developing countries of the Mexico City Plan of Action.[83] İt was renamed UNIFEM and placed in association with the UN Development Programme (UNDP) in 1984 in New York. İt has representatives in limited countries, but still growing. A further example is the Office of the Special Advisor to the Secretary General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) set out from a recommendation made at the Beijing Conference that there should be a higher level gender post (Assistant Secretary General) who reported directly to the SG. The office pteh OSAGI makes provisions on gender mainstriming and for the coalition between Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality, as well as for the Inter-Agency Task Force on Women, Peace, and Security.[84]
The key purposes of the UN Women are supporting inter-governmental bodies, such as the CSW, technical and financial asisstance to Member States and maintaining the UN system on the principles of gender equality by the regular monitoring.
Based on the principle of gender equality set out in the UN Charter, since January 2011, UN Women works for empowerment of women, elimination of discrimination against women and girls, as well as for the achievement of equality between women and men as partners and beneficiaries of development, human rights, humanitarian action and peace and security.[85]
CONCLUSION
Thus, to sum up, a great deal of work has been achieved by the United Nations system in the areas related to gender issues. To achieve the equality without any distinction on the grounds of sex and the empowerment of women, the UN bodies excercise their power through the UN Charter and Treaties. Comparing their work, it could be concluded that, the volume and scope of Charter bodies contrasted sharply with the meagre results achieved by Treaty bodies. However, due to their binding nature, these bodies oblige ratified states to respect the provisions contained in such treaties. Furthermore, Treaty Bodies provide for periodic reports from States parties about the measures they have taken to fulfil the commitments each treaty. Therefore, effective and efficient follow-up of their recommendations reflects well on gender policy of Member States.
[1] Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations: The Case for a new Gender Equality Architecture” (2009)
[2] United Nation, Charter of United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, available at: http://www.unwebsite.com/charter [accessed 14 February 2019]
[3] ECOSOC/Res/2/11 Establishing the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW), 21 June 1946
[4] Mona Lena Krook & Jacqui True, “Rethinking the life cycles of international norms: The United Nations and the global promotion of gender equality” (2010) 18(1) European Journal of International Relations 103, 112
[5] Laura Reanda, “Human Rights and Women’s Rights: The United Nations Approach” (1981), 3 Hum. Rts. Q. 11, 12
[6] UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3712c.html [accessed 14 February 2019]
[7] Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-vision of Human rights” (1990), 12 Human Rights Quarterly 486, 487
[8] Ibid 3
[9] Ibid 1
[10] UN General Assembly, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, p. 13, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3970.html [accessed 20 February 2019]
[11] Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, in 1 Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September,1995, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20/REV.1, U.N. Sales No. 96.IV 13 (1996 thereinafter Beijing Platform for Action].
[12] Ibid (n 4) 105
[13] Wouter Vanderhole, Non-discrimination and Equality in the View of the UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies (Antwerpen & Oxford 2005)
[14] Ibid (n 1)
[15] UN General Assembly, United Nations Millennium Declaration, Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly, 18 September 2000, A/RES/55/2, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f4ea3.html [accessed 14 February 2019]
[16] Hilary Charlesworth, “Not Waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations” (2005), 18 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1
[17] ibid
[18] UN General Assembly, World Conference of the International Women’s Year, 15 December 1975, A/RES/3520, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f1a814.html [accessed 17 February 2019]
[19] UN General Assembly, Implementation of the World Plan of Action adopted by the world Conference of the International Women’s Year, 12 December 1975, A/RES/3490, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f0415c.html [accessed 18 February 2019]
[20] Ibid (n 18)
[21] Judith P. Zinsser, “From Mexico to Copenhagen to Nairobi: The United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985” (2002), 13(1) Journal of World History 139, 146
[22] Ibid [n 16]
[23] Krook & True, “Rethinking the life cycles of international norms” (n 2) 118
[24] Ibid (n 10)
[25] UN General Assembly, World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women : Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, 14 to 30 July 1980, A/conf.94/35, available at: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/otherconferences/Copenhagen/Copenhagen%20Full%20Optimized.pdf [accessed 19 February, 2019]
[26] Zinsser, “From Mexico to Copenhagen to Nairobi” (n 17) 151
[27] Ibid 153
[28] Ibid 158-163
[29] UN General Assembly, Implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 13 December 1985, A/RES/40/108, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f2255c.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[30] Carolyn Hannan, “United Nations efforts in promoting women’s human rights” (2007)
[31] UN General Assembly, World Conference on Human Rights, 20 December 1993, A/RES/48/121, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f0a514.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[32] Donna J. Sullivan “Women’s Human Rights and the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights” (1994), 88(1) The American Journal of International Law 152, 156
[33] UN General Assembly, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 12 July 1993, A/CONF.157/23, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b39ec.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[34] Ibid art.18
[35] Mona Zulfigar, “From Human Rights to program reality: Vienna, Cairo and Beijing in perspective” (1995), 44 The American University Law Review 1017, 1021
[36] Sullivan “Women’s Human Rights” (n 28) 159-160
[37] Ibid 160
[38] UN General Assembly, Fourth World Conference on Women: resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 17 January 1996, A/RES/50/42, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f1aa38.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[39] Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations” (n 14) 14
[40] United Nations, Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, 15 September 1995, A/CONF.177/20 (1995) and A/CONF.177/20/Add.1 (1995), available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dde04324.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[41] Ibid art. 35
[42] Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations” (n 14) 7
[43] UN General Assembly, Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly [on the report of the Third Committee (A/54/599 and Corr.1)] 54/142. Preparations for the special session of the General Assembly entitled Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace for the twenty first century, 16 February 2000, A/RES/54/142, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f359c.html [accessed 19 February 2019]
[44] Five-year Review of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (Beijing + 5) held in the General Assembly, 5 – 9 June 2000
[45] UN General Assembly, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 21 December 1965, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 660, p. 195, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3940.html [accessed 25 February 2019]
[46] Ibid (n 25)
[47] Ibid (n 13) 87
[48] Ibid 8
[49] Ibid (n 25)
[50] Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s rights as Human Rights” (n 7) 495
[51] Resolution 34/180, Official Records of the General Assembly of the United Nations, Thirty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 46 (A/34/46), p. 193.
[52] Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations” (n 14) 3
[53] Ibid (n 25) Article 1
[54] Ibid (n 25) Article 4
[55] Ibid (n 25) Article 2
[56] Catherine Tinker, “Human Rights for Women: The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women” (1981) 3 Human Rights Q. 32, 42
[57] Ibid (n 25) Article 17
[58] Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations” (n 14) 3
[59] UN General Assembly, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 15 October 1999, A/RES/54/4, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f29a24.html [accessed 25 February 2019]
[60] Ibid
[61] https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/women/wrgs/pages/wrgsindex.aspx
[62] UN Commission on Human Rights, Question of integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanisms of the United Nations and the elimination of violence against women, 4 March 1994, E/CN.4/RES/1994/45, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f47f4.html [accessed 27 February 2019]
[63] https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CEDAW/pages/cedawindex.aspx
[64] Ibid
[65] UN Human Rights Council, Review of the work and functioning of the Human Rights Council: resolution / adopted by the Human Rights Council, 12 April 2011, A/HRC/RES/16/21, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4dc0ff632.html [accessed 25 February 2019]
[66] Laura J. Shepherd, “Power and Authority in the Production of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325” (2008), 52 International Studies Quarterly 383, 383
[67] UN Security Council, Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) [on women and peace and security], 31 October 2000, S/RES/1325 (2000), available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f4672e.html [accessed 25 February 2019]
[68] UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UNWOMEN), Preventing Conflict Transforming Justice Securing the Peace – A Global Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolution 1325, 12 October 2015, p.169/418
[69] Ibid 199
[70] Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations” (n 14) 2
[71] Ibid
[72] Ibid
[73] Ibid
[74] Zinsser, “From Mexico to Copenhagen to Nairobi” (n 17) 145
[75] Ibid (n 69)
[76] UN Economic and Social Council,1996/6. Follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Resolution 1996/6, 43rd plenary meeting 22 July 1996, available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1996/eres1996-6.htm [accessed 25 February 2019]
[77] Carolyn Hannan, “United Nations efforts in promoting women’s human rights” (2007), 8
[78] Commission on the Status of Women, Sixty-third session, New York 11 – 22 March 2019, available at <http://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/csw/63/unw_csw63_brochure_en-web.pdf?la=en&vs=4737>
[79] UN Women portal <http://www.unwomen.org/en/about-us/about-un-women> accessed 14 February 2019
[80] Ibid (n 71)
[81] Ibid
[82] UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Thematic Paper on MDG3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women (Best Practices), 9 September 2010, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4c8ddee42.html [accessed 25 February 2019]
[83] Ibid (n 69)
[84] Ibid (n 71)
[85] http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/daw/index.html
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, in 1 Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September,1995, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20/REV.1, U.N. Sales No. 96.IV 13
- Carolyn Hannan, “United Nations efforts in promoting women’s human rights” (2007)
- Catherine Tinker, “Human Rights for Women: The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women” (1981) 3 Human Rights Q. 32
- Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s Rights and Gender at the United Nations: The Case for a new Gender Equality Architecture” (2009)
- Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-vision of Human rights” (1990), 12 Human Rights Quarterly 486
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, United Nations General Assembly, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, p. 13
- Donna J. Sullivan “Women’s Human Rights and the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights” (1994), 88(1) The American Journal of International Law 152
- Judith P. Zinsser, “From Mexico to Copenhagen to Nairobi: The United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985” (2002), 13(1) Journal of World History 139
- Hilary Charlesworth, “Not Waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and Human Rights in the United Nations” (2005), 18 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1
- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 21 December 1965, United Nations General Assembly, Treaty Series, vol. 660, p. 195
- Laura Reanda, “Human Rights and Women’s Rights: The United Nations Approach” (1981), 3 Hum. Rts. Q. 11
- Laura J. Shepherd, “Power and Authority in the Production of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325” (2008), 52 International Studies Quarterly 383
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- Mona Zulfigar, “From Human Rights to program reality: Vienna, Cairo and Beijing in perspective” (1995), 44 The American University Law Review 1017
- UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UNWOMEN)
- United Nations Charter, UN General Assembly, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI
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Bu bloqda yerləşdirilən məqalələr hüquqi məsləhət xarakteri daşımır və belə olaraq nəzərə alınmamalıdır. Əlaqədar məsələ üzrə hüquqi dəyərləndirmənin və məsləhətin əldə olunması üçün müvafiq hüquqi məsləhət xidmətləri göstərən şəxsə müraciət etməyiniz tövsiyə olunur.